Friedman situates Leviticus within the context of the Priestly source (P). See info below about an H (Holiness) Source inside the P material. Freidman does not comment on the H hypothesis.
Extracts from Chapter 10, Elizabeth Hayes, Christine. Introduction to the Bible (The Open Yale Courses Series) (pp. 148-149). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. Formating into an outline is by this web guy.
Leviticus is the primary exemplar of the Priestly source (P) dealing with matters that were of special concern to, and under the jurisdiction of, priests: the sanctuary, its cultic rituals, the system of sacrifices, and the distinction between the pure and the impure, the holy and the profane. The priestly materials, which are found in a block in Leviticus, in parts of Numbers, and scattered throughout Genesis and Exodus, emerged over a period of centuries. Although they reached their final form in the exilic and postexilic periods, they preserve older cultic and priestly traditions as well.
The book of Leviticus can be broken into the following units.
- Chapters 1–7 detail the sacrificial system;
- Chapters 8–10 describe the installation of Aaron and his line as priests;
- Chapters 11–15 contain the dietary laws and the laws of ritual purity and impurity; and
- Chapter 16 prescribes the ritual for Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement).
- Chapters 17–26 are known as the Holiness Code, a miscellany that includes
- laws of forbidden sexual relations in chapters 18 and 20 and
- rules concerning vows and offerings in chapter 27.
The special emphasis on holiness in chapters 17–26, as well as variations from the preceding sixteen chapters, has led scholars to the conclusion that chapters 17–26 are from a different priestly school, which they designate as H. The relative dates of P and H are much debated, but increasingly the consensus is that H is later than, and a redactor or editor of, P. (Thus, somewhat confusingly, P can refer to the entirety of the priestly writings that constitute the priestly source, or it can refer to that part of the priestly writings that is not H.)
From her Conclusion
The priestly source of the Pentateuch and particularly the sacrificial and purity systems set forth in Leviticus transformed older Israelite rituals and traditions into symbolic practices that communicated basic convictions about morality and holiness and expounded a communal ethic in addition to an individual morality. Unfortunately, modern critical scholarship often maligned these materials as spiritually impoverished, due to the antipriest, anticult sentiment of European Protestantism. Thus, for Wellhausen, the priestly source with its emphasis on cult and ritual had to represent a late and degenerate stage in the evolution of Israelite religion. According to Wellhausen, the premonarchic period of ancient Israel’s history (the patriarchal and early tribal period down to approximately 1000 B.C.E.) was characterized by a free and natural form of religion unsullied by the legalistic and cultic “obsessions” of the priests and their cult.
In 586, however, Jerusalem lay in ruins, and the Israelites were sent into exile. It was then in Babylon and in subsequent decades, Wellhausen said, that the priests were able to assume control. Playing on the exiles’ overwhelming feelings of guilt and failure, they constructed a new identity and religion that stressed the sinfulness of the people, the need for ritual purity, ritual observance, and legalism as the road back to Yahweh. This, according to Wellhausen, was a degeneration. Wellhausen’s reconstruction of the evolution of Israelite religion is driven more by theological prejudice than by historical evidence and stems from an obvious projection of the Protestant-Catholic tension onto Israelite history and a Christian secessionist account of Judaism as moribund at the time of Jesus.
Instead of charting an evolution, or rather degeneration, of Israelite religion from JE and D to P as in classical source critical theory, many scholars prefer to see three distinct and roughly contemporaneous strands of ancient Israelite tradition, transmitted and developed over centuries and crystallizing into final form at various times. Thus, we may hypothesize as follows: JE has fragments that are quite old and reached its final form before the centralization of the cult in 622, D contains northern traditions from before 722 that were propounded in late-seventh-century Judah but reached a final redacted form in the exile, and P likewise contains older traditions that reached their full and final redacted form in the exilic or postexilic period. Each of these complex, multilayered sources possesses its own emphases, agenda, and perspectives that at times complement and at times challenge one another but are not best seen as steps in a linear progression. Their diversity has not been flattened or homogenized by a final editor but preserved in a manner that stimulates reflection and debate.
Elizabeth Hayes, Christine. Introduction to the Bible (The Open Yale Courses Series) (p. 162-164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.
For more about H go to the post on this website for ChatGPT and Claude.ai responses.
From ChatGPT on 1/8/2025.
Prompt – Provide what critical historical bible scholars say about the book of Leviticus. Cite the scholars and their works.
The book of Leviticus is a cornerstone of the Torah and pivotal to understanding ancient Israelite religion, particularly the priestly system, laws, and rituals. Below is a summary of critical historical perspectives from prominent Bible scholars:
1. Mary Douglas – Purity and Danger (1966) & Leviticus as Literature (1999)
- Douglas argues that the laws of Leviticus reflect a system of symbolic logic. She emphasizes that concepts of purity and impurity are rooted in maintaining boundaries that symbolize order in creation. For example:
- Dietary laws (Leviticus 11) categorize animals based on their adherence to “normal” modes of locomotion and habitat.
- Sacrificial rituals are seen as means of addressing the community’s relationship with God and maintaining societal order.
- In Leviticus as Literature, she presents the text as a sophisticated literary work, showing how its structure reinforces theological themes.
2. Jacob Milgrom – Leviticus 1-16 (Anchor Bible Commentary, 1991)
- Milgrom, a leading scholar on Leviticus, sees the text as a theological treatise on holiness. His work highlights:
- Holiness and Ethics: Leviticus ties holiness not only to ritual purity but also to ethical behavior (e.g., the Holiness Code in Leviticus 19).
- Priestly Theology: The priestly authors crafted the text to express the idea that God’s presence sanctifies the community.
- Sacrificial System: Milgrom explains sacrifices in terms of their symbolic function to atone for human transgressions and cleanse sacred spaces.
2a. Christine Hayes’ book Introduction to the Bible, Leviticus, below are extracts referencing Milgrom:
Re: The Holiness Code – What are the moral implications of the holiness model? Holiness in the Holiness Code is a status that is imparted by Yahweh but that is only actualized and preserved by that essential partner in the process—Israel. Holiness in the priestly source must be understood as a divine-human collaboration that awards to humans a huge responsibility. To depict Israel as Yahweh’s essential partner in the process of sanctification is to represent humans as full-fledged moral agents, each a powerful force for good (or evil) in the world. Yahweh’s battle to sanctify his creation can be Israel’s battle. If Israel chooses to turn away, and does not observe the rules, norms, or prohibitions that actualize and preserve sanctity, namely, the laws of Yahweh’s Torah, then despite Yahweh’s best efforts, desecration occurs: The realm of the holy in the world shrinks. Israel can choose to join with Yahweh in preserving and extending holiness—be it the holiness of objects, time, places, or the community itself—or Israel can drive Yahweh and holiness from the world. This is the moral vision at the heart of the priestly concept of holiness. Elizabeth Hayes, Christine. Introduction to the Bible (The Open Yale Courses Series) (p. 162). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.
Re: Sacrifices – Milgrom describes the symbolic function of Israel’s purity system in this way: If the sanctuary symbolizes the presence of Yahweh and if impurity represents the wrongdoing of persons, then by saying that impurity is anathema to Yahweh and pollutes his Temple, the priests are able graphically to convey the idea that sin forces Yahweh out of his sanctuary and out of the community. Milgrom describes what he sees as the moral message at the root of this complex symbolic picture: Human actions determine the degree to which Yahweh can dwell on earth among his people. Humans and humans alone are responsible for the reign of wickedness and death or the reign of righteousness and life in their society. The objective of the priestly construction or representation of Israel’s impurity laws was to sever impurity from the demonic and reinterpret it as a symbolic system reminding Israel of the divine imperative to reject sin—to behave in ways that attract the presence of Yahweh and do not repel him. Elizabeth Hayes, Christine. Introduction to the Bible (The Open Yale Courses Series) (p. 158). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.
3. Richard Elliott Friedman – Who Wrote the Bible? (1987)
- Friedman situates Leviticus within the context of the Priestly source (P). He asserts that:
- Leviticus reflects the concerns of a centralized priesthood, particularly during or after the Babylonian Exile.
- The text is theological, aiming to demonstrate how the divine presence is sustained through rituals and obedience to God’s laws.
4. Gordon J. Wenham – The Book of Leviticus (New International Commentary on the Old Testament, 1979)
- Wenham provides a theological and pastoral perspective. His critical insights include:
- Sacrifices: They serve as a means of communion between humanity and God, emphasizing both the seriousness of sin and the possibility of atonement.
- Rituals and Ethics: He sees a close connection between ritual law and moral law, arguing that both aim to create a holy community.
5. Thomas Römer – The So-Called Deuteronomistic History (2005)
- Römer discusses Leviticus as part of the priestly tradition, emphasizing:
- Its post-exilic composition or editing, reflecting concerns of a restored community seeking to reestablish identity through ritual law.
- A shift in focus from monarchic traditions to priestly authority.
6. John W. Kleinig – Leviticus (Concordia Commentary, 2003)
- Kleinig emphasizes the liturgical nature of Leviticus, highlighting:
- The role of priests as mediators of God’s holiness to the people.
- The importance of Leviticus in framing communal worship and defining the Israelite identity as God’s chosen people.
7. Mark S. Smith – The Priestly Vision of Genesis 1 (2010)
- While focusing on the broader Priestly source, Smith connects Leviticus to the Priestly worldview:
- The text reflects an idealized vision of sacred space and time, demonstrating how human actions must align with divine order.
Summary
- Theological Focus: Many scholars see Leviticus as foundational for understanding Israelite conceptions of holiness, sacrifice, and the role of the priesthood.
- Historical Context: Leviticus likely reflects post-exilic concerns with reestablishing religious identity and centralizing worship.
- Symbolism: Laws and rituals are deeply symbolic, reflecting theological, ethical, and cosmic concerns.
These works highlight Leviticus as not merely a collection of laws but a richly symbolic text that integrates theology, ethics, and liturgy to define the Israelite relationship with God.
