See the post on this site titled Jonah’s Poetic Prayer Inserted in Chapter 2. Plus, see the extract below by Christine Elizabeth Hayes about the prayer.
Did God Play a Dirty Trick on Jonah at the End? by David Noel Freedman. Published by BAS August 1990
Freedman presents alternative insights to the story that are very interesting and are predicated on his statement that in the 8th Century BCE the concept of repentance was evolving instead of punishment. Extracts that summarize his insights are:
- The turning point of the story, as far as Jonah is concerned, is the casting of the lots. When the lots are cast on the ship to find out who is responsible for the terrible storm, Jonah is identified. Whatever the sailors may think, Jonah knows that God has caught up with him.
- Jonah had some very fixed ideas about God; that’s where the quarrel really is. That he didn’t want to go to Nineveh has nothing to do with the fact that the Ninevites were gentiles. Jonah’s problem was with a new eighth-century B.C.E. doctrine about God. It is the doctrine of “the God who repents about the evil” (niham ‘al hara ‘a)2 he says he’s going to do that concerns Jonah. … Previously, there had to be punishment or retribution for wrong doing. The new idea was that repentance is equivalent to, or has equal value with, punishment or retribution. In short, you can substitute repentance for retribution—and come out even.
- The Book of Jonah is designed to explain and to support this new view of reciprocal repentance: If you repent, God will repent; it doesn’t matter who: Repentance is open to everyone, even the Ninevites. If they repent, they have as much right to God’s repentance as anyone else. Jonah does not accept this. He is emotionally, psychologically and theologically opposed. It’s a particular problem for him, because the doctrine is being propounded not by a fellow theologian, but by God Himself. What is he to do? That’s why he runs away. There is nobody to appeal to.
- What led the Ninevites to believe this stranger—and therefore to repent? I believe it was the miracle of the fish. Now we begin to see why the fish is so important, so critical to the story.
- God replies very briefly—a mere two verses—and with that the book ends. “You’re sorry for the plant,” God says. “You didn’t labor for it, you didn’t make it grow; it is a child of the night and perished in a night” (Jonah 4:10). In short, God says, “the plant has no significant value, yet you, Jonah, are ready to die about it. If you had the power, Jonah, you would surely have spared the plant. How do you think I feel?” God asks: “Should I not feel sorry for Nineveh that great city of more than 120,000 people who do not know their right hand from their left?” (Jonah 4:11).
- God is telling Jonah that that is what’s behind the whole thing—pity, compassion for his children. This whole repentance business was just a charade. That was for Jonah’s benefit, to give Jonah some anchor to hold onto, to say, well, you know, they did repent, so Jonah has to say, yes, that’s right, God acted according to the rules, even if this repentance business is a new one. But God is now saying that regardless of the repentance, he would have saved them. “They’re human beings,” God is saying. “Don’t I have the right to be sorry for these people who don’t know their right hand from their left? And if I’m sorry for them, they’re not going to be destroyed.” There is no answer from Jonah! I think he must have been shocked out of his mind!
Bart Ehrman
Bart Ehrman has a great post The Bible’s Best Known Short Story: Jonah, December 28, 2021. A paragraph was extracted and is below in italics.
There are numerous lessons that an ancient reader might take away from this terrific little story. Here again we have a prophetic emphasis that God is not the God only of Israel but of all nations, and that he has power over all, even over that mighty world empire, Assyria. Moreover, God is portrayed as a God of mercy who really prefers not to enter into judgment but to extend his mercy to all who repent, even if they are the worst of enemies. This message no doubt rankled not only Jonah but his Judean hearers, who knew full well that Israel and Judah were destroyed and who believed that it was by an act of God, who was angry with his people for sinning and not repenting.
Extracts from the SBL Intro by John Kaltner
Evidence from within the book indicates that Jonah was not written until long after the reign of Jeroboam II, so the relatively obscure eighth-century prophet plays the central role in a narrative that is meant to address the concerns of a much later time and context than his own. Some evidence that the book addresses later concerns is historical in nature. For example, the description of the city of Nineveh, to which Jonah is sent, reflects a time much later than that of Jeroboam II. Nineveh was not a large city from which royal proclamations were issued (3.6–9) until it became the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the century after Jeroboam’s reign. The linguistic evidence points in the same direction. The book contains grammatical forms, words, and phrases characteristic of a later point in the history of Biblical Hebrew. The book adopts a universalist perspective with its positive assessment of the people of Nineveh and its description of God being concerned about the fate of non-Israelites (4.11). This tolerant and accepting attitude toward foreigners is typical of later literature in the biblical canon.
Society of Biblical Literature. The SBL Study Bible (pp. 3712-3713). HarperCollins. Kindle Edition.
Related to the question of genre is the presence of Jonah’s poetic prayer from inside the fish in chapter 2, which breaks up the prose of the rest of the book. If it were deleted, the flow of the story would improve. In addition, the words Jonah utters from his piscine prison do not fit the narrative context of the previous chapter. It is therefore likely that Jonah’s psalm-like prayer was a later addition to the entertaining story of the reluctant prophet.
Society of Biblical Literature. The SBL Study Bible (pp. 3715-3716). HarperCollins. Kindle Edition.
Extracts from Elizabeth Hayes, Christine. Introduction to the Bible (The Open Yale Courses Series). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.
Chapter 2:
- In a humorous touch, of which there are many in this short book, Jonah does an immediate about face and sets sail for Spain, at the other end of the Mediterranean, the farthest extent of the known world at that time. (p. 395).
- From the belly of the fish, Jonah prays to Yahweh. This prayer or psalm is not entirely appropriate to the context. The deity did not drive Jonah away, nor is there any evidence that Jonah longs for the Temple, as stated in verse 5. The psalm is probably an insertion by a later writer, triggered by references to drowning and crying out to Yahweh from the “belly” of Sheol, just as Jonah is said to be in the “belly” of the fish (a catchword connection). In response to Jonah’s prayer, Yahweh orders the fish to spew Jonah out onto dry land. (pp. 395-396).
Chapter 3:
- In yet another humorous touch, the narrator reports that even the animals [are required by the King to] wear sackcloth, fast, and cry out to the deity! From the greatest to the least, the inhabitants of Nineveh turn back from their evil ways, and Yahweh’s mercy is aroused. (p. 396). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. The following sub-bullets are from ChatGPT.
- In the Hebrew Bible’s book of Jonah, the cattle do not themselves cry out for mercy. What happens is that the king of Nineveh issues a decree that both humans and animals must take part in the mourning and fasting as a sign of repentance.
- The passage is in Jonah 3:7–8 (ASV):
- “And he made proclamation and published through Nineveh by the decree of the king and his nobles, saying, Let neither man nor beast, herd nor flock, taste anything; let them not feed, nor drink water; but let them be covered with sackcloth, both man and beast, and let them cry mightily unto God: yea, let them turn every one from his evil way, and from the violence that is in his hands.”
- Here, the decree explicitly says “let them (both man and beast) be covered with sackcloth, and let them cry mightily unto God.”
- There is a wonderful irony in the fact that this reluctant prophet produces maximal results with minimal effort. [bullet formatting is mine]
- In chapter 1, he made no effort to convince the sailors of anything except the desirability of throwing him overboard, and yet after their encounter with Jonah, the sailors revere Yahweh, offer him sacrifices, and make vows.
- Similarly, once in Nineveh, Jonah utters a mere five words (literally, “forty days more, Nineveh overthrown”), and in response, even the cattle are crying out to heaven. Jonah does not fulminate against the people, speak of Yahweh or any divine power at all, or call upon the people to repent and save themselves.
- Unlike the classical Israelite prophets who railed against the people, enumerating the causes of Yahweh’s anger and charting a clear path to forgiveness through repentance, Jonah offers no instruction, no counsel, no comfort, and no insight, in fact, into the situation in which the Ninevites find themselves. It is the Ninevite king who simply surmises that turning back from sin might prompt the deity to turn back from his wrath! And so every last Ninevite—and all their livestock—repents. Jonah, it seems, is incapable of failure. (pp. 396-397).
Three Responses from ChatGPT. Note the 3rd is about the cattle.
First Prompt – How do critical bible scholars interpret the many metaphors in the Hebrew Bible book of Jonah? Cite all sources.
Critical scholars interpret the metaphors in the Hebrew Bible’s Book of Jonah as integral to its literary artistry and theological messaging. Rather than viewing Jonah as a straightforward historical account, many scholars approach it as a literary work rich in symbolism, satire, and moral lessons.
Literary and Rhetorical Dimensions
Phyllis Trible’s Rhetorical Criticism offers a detailed analysis of Jonah, examining its structure, syntax, and style to reveal how the narrative’s artistry conveys theological themes. Trible’s work highlights how the book’s composition serves as both a rhetorical and theological tool, emphasizing the relationship between artistry and theology .(fortresspress.com)
Metaphors and Symbolism
Scholars like Kurz and Tilford argue that metaphors in Jonah are not mere literary devices but are deeply ingrained cognitive patterns that shape the way readers conceptualize their environment. These metaphors function as symbols that represent something else by analogy or synecdoche, indicating or announcing future possible meanings in the text. (mdpi.com)
Allegorical Interpretations
Some scholars have proposed allegorical readings of Jonah, suggesting that Jonah represents Israel, and his mission to Nineveh symbolizes Israel’s reluctant outreach to Gentiles. However, this interpretation faces challenges, such as the anachronistic association of Nineveh with the Babylonian exile and the absence of clear allegorical markers in the text. (academia.edu)
Genre and Didactic Purpose
The genre of Jonah has been a subject of debate. Some scholars classify it as a parable or satire, noting its exaggerated elements and caricatured characters. These features suggest that the story was intended to convey a moral lesson rather than serve as a historical account. (bibleinterp.arizona.edu)
Theological Themes
The metaphors in Jonah also serve to explore profound theological themes, such as the tension between justice and mercy, and the universality of God’s compassion. These themes are conveyed through the narrative’s structure and the symbolic actions of its characters, inviting readers to reflect on the nature of divine justice and mercy .
Conclusion
In summary, critical scholars interpret the metaphors in the Book of Jonah as essential components of its literary and theological fabric. These metaphors function on multiple levels, providing insight into the narrative’s deeper meanings and inviting readers to engage with its moral and theological questions.
Second Response
Second Prompt – Do critical bible scholars believe there are parallels in the metaphors of Jonah and those of Jesus, such as that Jonah was asleep during the storm in the bottom of the boat and Jesus was also sleeping in the bottom of a boat during a storm? Cite all sources
Yes, critical Bible scholars observe significant parallels between the storm narratives involving Jonah and Jesus, particularly regarding their shared metaphors. These similarities are often interpreted as intentional literary and theological devices that highlight deeper themes in both texts.
Parallels in the Storm Narratives
Both Jonah and Jesus are depicted as sleeping in the hold of a boat during a violent storm, a situation that causes fear among their fellow sailors or disciples. In Jonah’s case, the sailors wake him, urging him to call upon his god to save them from the impending disaster. Similarly, in the Gospels, the disciples wake Jesus, expressing their fear and seeking his intervention. In both stories, the storm is calmed, leading to awe and reverence from those on board. (davidhuffstutler.com, thegospelcoalition.org)
Literary and Theological Interpretations
Scholars like Derrick Peterson note that while some parallels may be coincidental due to the nature of storm descriptions, others are striking enough to suggest intentional literary connections. For instance, both narratives involve a journey across water from Jewish to Gentile territories, and the calming of the storm leads to expressions of fear and awe from the witnesses. (academia.edu)
Timothy Keller, in his book King’s Cross: The Story of the World in the Life of Jesus, argues that Mark’s Gospel deliberately parallels the Jonah narrative to highlight Jesus’ divine authority. Keller suggests that while Jonah’s story involves him being thrown into the sea to calm the storm, Jesus calms the storm by his own command, demonstrating his unique power over nature. (thegospelcoalition.org)
Typological Significance
Some theologians interpret these parallels through typology, viewing Jonah as a prefiguration of Christ. For example, St. Augustine and other early Christian writers saw Jonah’s three days in the belly of the fish as a symbol of Christ’s death and resurrection. In this typological framework, the storm narratives serve to underscore the sacrificial roles of both figures .
Conclusion
Critical scholars recognize the intentional literary parallels between the storm stories of Jonah and Jesus. These parallels serve to highlight themes of divine authority, salvation, and typological connections between the Old and New Testaments. While interpretations vary, the shared metaphors enrich the theological depth of both narratives.
Third Response from ChatGPT on the Cattle in Jonah
This is one of the most unusual and debated parts of Jonah, and critical Bible scholars have given several explanations for why the animals are included in Nineveh’s repentance scene in Jonah 3:7–8.
Here are the main scholarly interpretations:
1. Hyperbolic repentance imagery
Many scholars see the animals’ fasting and sackcloth as deliberate exaggeration, highlighting the totality of Nineveh’s repentance. Jack M. Sasson (Anchor Bible Commentary on Jonah, 1990) notes that this is “parodic hyperbole” — a way of showing repentance that is so over the top it borders on the absurd. It underlines the book’s satirical tone, where even the beasts are dragged into the drama of repentance.
2. Ancient Near Eastern ritual background
Scholars like James Limburg (Jonah: A Commentary, OTL, 1993) point out that in the ancient Near East, animals were sometimes involved in mourning or rituals of crisis. Covering animals with sackcloth and forcing them to fast may have been understood as a way of amplifying the urgency of the appeal to the deity — the suffering cries of cattle would audibly add to the wailing of the humans, making the city’s grief unmistakable to heaven.
3. Theological symbolism
Some interpreters (e.g., Phyllis Trible, Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah, 1994) argue that including the cattle is part of the author’s message: all creation is involved in repentance and in God’s mercy. This anticipates the final verse of Jonah (4:11), where God asks, “And should not I spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand; and also much cattle?” (ASV). The animals are mentioned at the end as part of what God values, reinforcing why they appear in chapter 3.
4. Satirical critique of ritual piety
Some critical scholars (such as Yvonne Sherwood, A Biblical Text and Its Afterlives: The Survival of Jonah in Western Culture, 2000) argue that the animals’ involvement pokes fun at ritualistic extremes. By forcing cattle into sackcloth, the narrator is ironically showing how external shows of repentance can become absurd — a critique of hollow religiosity.
Summary:
Critical scholars generally see the animals’ “crying out” as literary and rhetorical, not literal. It either heightens the satire, reflects real ancient practices of involving animals in crisis rituals, or underscores the book’s broader theological theme that God’s mercy extends to all living beings.
