From ChatGPT on 6/25/2026.
Prompt: Provide an essay based on the work of critical bible scholars about the destruction of the bronze serpent (Nehushtan) by Hezekiah in 2 Kings 18:4. The serpent may originally have been a legitimate cult object but later became treated as an idol. Include the thoughts about the timing of that event, the creation of the serpent, the major events in Moses’ life, and the times of the Israelites. Cite all sources inline.
Response:
The Bronze Serpent (Nehushtan), Hezekiah, and the Development of Israelite Religion
The destruction of the bronze serpent (Hebrew: Nĕḥuštān) by King Hezekiah is one of the most revealing episodes in the Hebrew Bible for understanding how Israelite religion evolved over time. According to 2 Kings 18:4:
“He removed the high places, and brake the pillars, and cut down the Asherah: and he brake in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses had made; for unto those days the children of Israel did burn incense to it; and he called it Nehushtan” (ASV).
Critical biblical scholars generally view this passage as preserving evidence that an object once regarded as legitimate, and perhaps even sacred, eventually came to be regarded as an improper cult object or idol as Israelite religion moved toward greater centralization and exclusivism.
The Bronze Serpent in the Wilderness Tradition
The bronze serpent first appears in Numbers 21:4–9. In that account, poisonous serpents attack the Israelites during the wilderness wanderings. YHWH instructs Moses to make a bronze serpent and place it on a pole so that those bitten may look upon it and live.
Many critical scholars regard this narrative as an etiological story—that is, a story explaining the origin of an already existing cult object. Martin Noth argued that the account likely served to explain the presence of a famous serpent image preserved at the Jerusalem Temple centuries later (Noth, Numbers, 1968). Similarly, Richard D. Nelson notes that the Numbers story functions as an origin tradition for the object mentioned in 2 Kings 18:4 (Nelson, First and Second Kings, 1987).
Thomas Römer observes that serpent symbolism was widespread throughout the ancient Near East and that serpents often functioned as symbols of healing, protection, wisdom, or divine power (Römer, The Invention of God, 2015). The bronze serpent thus fits naturally into the religious environment of the Late Bronze and Iron Ages.
Was the Bronze Serpent Originally Legitimate?
Many scholars conclude that the biblical author of Kings did not deny that Moses had made the serpent. Rather, the problem was that people were burning incense to it.
John Gray notes that the object may originally have been viewed as a legitimate symbol associated with YHWH’s healing power but later acquired an independent cultic significance that reformers considered unacceptable (Gray, I & II Kings, 1970).
Similarly, Mordechai Cogan and Hayim Tadmor argue that the serpent was likely preserved in the Jerusalem Temple for centuries as a revered relic of Israel’s past. The offense described in 2 Kings 18:4 was not its existence but the cultic veneration directed toward it (Cogan and Tadmor, II Kings, 1988).
William G. Dever, drawing upon archaeological evidence, emphasizes that pre-exilic Israelite religion included many objects, symbols, and practices that later biblical writers condemned. He argues that the religion practiced by ordinary Israelites was often more complex and image-oriented than the theology eventually promoted by Deuteronomistic authors (Dever, Did God Have a Wife?, 2005).
Why Did Hezekiah Destroy It?
The account of Hezekiah’s reforms appears in 2 Kings 18:1–6. Critical scholars commonly associate these reforms with the emergence of Deuteronomistic theology, which stressed exclusive worship of YHWH at Jerusalem.
According to Cogan and Tadmor, the destruction of the bronze serpent was part of a broader effort to eliminate competing cult practices and concentrate religious authority in Jerusalem (Cogan and Tadmor, II Kings, 1988).
Richard D. Nelson likewise argues that the author of Kings portrays Hezekiah as removing objects that had become rivals to proper worship of YHWH, even when those objects possessed ancient and respected origins (Nelson, First and Second Kings, 1987).
The very name “Nehushtan” may reflect polemical wordplay. Many scholars understand it as meaning something like “mere bronze thing” or “piece of bronze.” By calling it Nehushtan, the author may be diminishing its status from sacred relic to ordinary metal object (Gray, I & II Kings, 1970).
When Did Hezekiah’s Reform Occur?
The reign of Hezekiah is usually dated approximately 715–686 BCE, though some scholars allow for a co-regency beginning earlier.
The destruction of the bronze serpent would therefore have occurred sometime in the late eighth century BCE, likely during reform efforts associated with the period before or after the Assyrian crisis culminating in Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah in 701 BCE (Cogan and Tadmor, II Kings, 1988; Nelson, First and Second Kings, 1987).
Some scholars, however, question whether the reform occurred exactly as described. The account was written and edited by later Deuteronomistic historians, probably during the late seventh and sixth centuries BCE. Thus, while Hezekiah may have initiated reforms, the narrative reflects later theological concerns as well (Römer, The So-Called Deuteronomistic History, 2007).
When Was the Bronze Serpent Created?
This question is far more difficult.
The biblical narrative places its creation during Moses’ lifetime in the wilderness after the Exodus. However, critical scholarship does not generally regard the Numbers account as a straightforward historical report.
The dating depends largely on one’s view of the Exodus tradition:
| Event | Traditional Biblical Setting | Common Critical Scholarly Assessment |
|---|---|---|
| Moses and Exodus | Often placed c. 1300–1200 BCE | Historical existence uncertain |
| Wilderness period | c. 40 years after Exodus | Largely theological tradition |
| Creation of bronze serpent | During Moses’ lifetime | Origin uncertain; story may explain a later cult object |
| Bronze serpent housed in Jerusalem | Not specified | Possibly present by monarchic period |
| Hezekiah destroys Nehushtan | c. 715–686 BCE | Generally accepted as plausible |
Many scholars suspect the object itself may have originated in the monarchic period rather than the wilderness period. Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman note that many traditions connecting Jerusalem institutions to Moses and the wilderness were shaped centuries later to provide ancient legitimacy to existing religious practices (Finkelstein and Silberman, The Bible Unearthed, 2001).
Thomas Römer similarly argues that traditions linking important cult objects to Moses often served to give them venerable authority and antiquity (Römer, The Invention of God, 2015).
The Broader Historical Setting
A simplified timeline helps place the Nehushtan tradition in context:
| Period | Approximate Date | Major Events |
|---|---|---|
| Late Bronze Age | c. 1550–1200 BCE | Egypt dominates Canaan |
| Possible setting of Moses traditions | c. 13th–12th century BCE | Traditional Exodus period |
| Early Israelite settlements | c. 1200–1000 BCE | Emergence of Israel in highlands |
| United Monarchy traditions | c. 1000–930 BCE | David and Solomon |
| Divided Kingdom | c. 930–722 BCE | Israel and Judah |
| Reign of Hezekiah | c. 715–686 BCE | Religious reforms; Assyrian threat |
| Destruction of Nehushtan | Late 8th century BCE | Reform movement |
| Josiah’s reforms | c. 640–609 BCE | Further centralization of worship |
| Babylonian Exile | 586 BCE onward | Major theological developments |
Conclusion
Critical scholars generally view the Nehushtan episode as evidence of changing religious attitudes within ancient Israel. The bronze serpent was likely not originally regarded as an idol. Rather, it appears to have been an accepted sacred object associated with YHWH’s healing power, perhaps even preserved in the Jerusalem Temple for generations. Scholars such as Martin Noth, John Gray, Richard Nelson, Mordechai Cogan, Hayim Tadmor, William Dever, Thomas Römer, and Israel Finkelstein argue that the object’s eventual destruction reflects a broader shift toward exclusive, centralized worship and increasing opposition to material cult symbols.
In this reconstruction, the Numbers narrative explains the origin of an ancient cult object, while 2 Kings 18:4 records—or at least remembers—the moment when a once-legitimate religious symbol came to be viewed as an inappropriate focus of devotion. The story therefore provides a valuable window into the transformation of Israelite religion from a form that tolerated sacred objects and symbols to one that increasingly defined such practices as idolatrous.
